CHAPTER IV - SOVIET SPACE SYSTEMS
The Soviet quest for military supremacy has expanded into space. With
the development and employment of an orbital antisatellite (ASAT)
weapon over a decade ago, the Soviet Union clearly signaled its
recognition of space as an arena in which to conduct war.
In the past ten years, the USSR has been launching more than 75
spacecraft per year, a rate of four-to-five times that of the United
States. Over the past few years, the rate has been close to 100
annually. The annual payload weight placed into orbit by the Soviets is
evermore impressive - 660,000 pounds - ten times that of the United
States. This level of effort reflects the importance the Soviets attach
to their space programs; it also reflects some technological weakness
in the areas of longevity and flexibility. Soviet military and military
related space programs range from extended manned missions, to
meteorological, communications, navigational, reconnaissance,
surveillance, targeting and antisatellite missions. The magnitude of
the Soviet space program comes into even clearer focus with the
realization that the USSR currently has under development a heavy-lift
space launch system, comparable to the US SATURN V, that will be able
to place payloads at least six.to seven times the weight of those of
the US space shuttle into orbit.
Since the USSR's successful launch of SPUTNIK 1 in 1957, the Soviets
have pursued a vigorous, deliberate and methodical program to exploit
space for military purposes. The initial Soviet use of space for
military applications occurred in 1961 with the launch of their first
photographic reconnaissance satellite. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s,
Soviet military space programs expanded in both scope and numbers. By
the advent of the space shuttle era, these programs had developed into
mature, integrated systems for the direct and indirect support of
Soviet military forces, and with the capability to threaten
low-altitude US and allied satellites.
The military, political, and economic value of Soviet space programs
dictates that general control and direction of the Soviet space effort
rest with the Politburo. The fundamental decisions for military space
system research, design, development, testing, and production at the
national level are made in the Soviet Defense Council. Both of these
organs are headed by General Secretary Andropov. Actual program
management, however, is overseen by the Military Industrial Commission,
which reports directly to the Council of Ministers. All five components
of the Armed Forces take part in the development and operation of the
Soviet space program. The Strategic Rocket Forces provide the launch
and tracking support.
The USSR has invested heavily in three extensive space assembly and
launch complexes at Tyuratum, Plesetsk and Kapustin Yar. Each of these
complexes is protected from external attack by surrounding networks of
air defense, including manned interceptor bases and surface-to-air
missile complexes. New launch facilities are being built at Tyuratam to
handle the newest generation of Soviet heavy-lift space boosters that
will move from the developmental to the operational stage in the second
half of this decade. These boosters include one in the SATURN V class,
another somewhat smaller expendable booster and a reusable system
similar to the US shuttle. Additional developments include newer
spacecraft with greater flexibility; upgrading of command, control and
tracking sites; upgrading of ships dedicated to supporting space
activities and expansion of production, research, development and test
facilities.
On any given day, 70-110 Soviet satellites are in orbit, more than half
of which serve military purposes solely. Some 85 percent of all Soviet
space launches are exclusively military or joint military/civilian
missions. The resources required to sustain this effort are enormous.
The Soviet space program in the past has relied heavily on modified
ballistic missiles for space system boosters. Eleven of 14 launch
systems successfully flown by the Soviets have used stages from
ballistic missiles. The two new expendable systems expected to have
their first flights in the 1984-87 time period have been designed from
the ground up as space systems.In keeping with past Soviet practice,
several versions of each of these systems will probably be developed to
support many different space missions.
Current evidence indicates that the Soviets are developing a reuseable
space system, similar to the US space shuttle and a smaller space
plane. Orbital developmental test flights of the smaller vehicle have
already occurred. These systems could be in regular use within a decade
and will further expand the military flexibility and capability of the
Soviet space effort. Soviet
manned space missions are becoming increasingly complex and constitute
the single most extensive element of the Soviet space program. After
accomplishing many firsts in the early 1960s, including the first man
in space, the Soviet manned program was overshadowed by the US manned
program during the late 1960s. Since 1971, the Soviets have placed
seven space stations in orbit. Indeed, there was not one US manned
space mission from 1975 to 1981. The first SALYUT-I manned space
station was launched in 1971. A second type of SALYUT station was
launched in 1973. Both were capable of conducting military research. In
1977, the Soviets launched SALYUT-6, a small space station complex,
which had a second docking collar to accommodate the PROGRESS cargo
vehicle and the SOYUZ cosmonaut ferry. These features provided the
Soviets with the capability to resupply and exchange personnel on their
SALYUT space stations. On three occasions the Soviets have conducted
manned missions lasting as long as six months, with the longest mission
211 days, almost three times greater than the longest, 84-day, manned
US mission in 1974. Soviet cosmonauts have amassed twice as many
man-hours in space as US astronauts. The
Soviet commitment to their manned space program is growing. The
development of a large manned space station by about 1990 to maintain a
military presence in space is one of the goals of the new heavy-lift
launcher systems now in development. In addition to space stations
expected by 1990, the Soviets will use the heavy-lift space boosters to
orbit even larger space stations and space modules before the end of
the century. Such space stations could weigh more than 100 tons and be
able to support a large crew for extended periods without
replenishment.
The USSR's introduction, application and known future development of
space weapon systems point to a coordinated program involving: - the present generation of antisatellite vehicles, now operational and designed to destroy low-orbiting satellites,
- a very large, directed energy research program including the development of
laser-beam weapons systems which could be based either in the USSR, aboard the next generation of Soviet ASATs or
aboard the next generation of Soviet manned space stations.
The ASAT system, which is now operational, has the capability to seek
and destroy US space systems in near-earth orbit. The Soviets conduct
yearly tests to practice satellite interception and to refine the ASAT
system. One direction of the Soviet Union's space weapons program is
toward the development and deployment of a space-based laser system.
The Soviets could launch the first prototype of a space-based laser
antisatellite system in the late 1980s or very early 1990s. An
operational system capable of attacking other satellites within a few
thousand kilometers range could be established in the early 1990s.
Space-based ABM systems could be tested in the 1990s, but probably
would not be operational until the turn of the century.
The Soviets have steadily increased their space photographic and
electronic reconnaissance effort since the early 1960s. Each year over
50 of these satellites are launched to support military forces on a
daily basis. The several different satellite systems in use provide
target location, target identification and characterization,
order-of-battle, force monitoring, crisis monitoring and situation
assessment, geodetic information for ICBM targeting and mapping for
military forces.
The Soviet military space program also reflects an ever-increasing use
of space for world wide surveillance and warning. The Soviets have
brought a number of US and Allied military forces under surveillance by
these space based systems. The surveillance satellites include an ICBM
launch detection system and ocean surveillance systems, such as the two
RORSAT satellites with nuclear-powered generators that caused world
wide alerts during their breakup and reentries to earth in 1978 and
early 1983. Soviet efforts in the surveillance field are expected to
lead to a multi-satellite detection, surveillance and attack-warning
system against strategic and non-strategic ballistic missiles and
possibly bombers, as well.
The Soviets are increasing their use of space systems for command,
control, and communications. Since the mid-1960s when the first Soviet
MOLNIYA communications satellite was launched, the USSR has continued
to improve and expand its communications satellite programs to support
its political leadership and its military, diplomatic and intelligence
missions. The
Soviets are emphasizing the development of communications networks
using satellite systems that will be placed in geostationary orbits.
Currently, the geostationary satellites - GORIZONT, RADUGA, and EKRANs
- occupy orbits with the announced function of fulfilling part of the
Soviet domestic and international communications requirements. These
satellites could also provide military communications to ground, sea
and air elements of the Soviet Armed Forces.
The Soviets have embarked on an ambitious expansion of their
communication satellite program that will add measureably to their
global command, control and communications capability. Over the next
ten years, the Soviets will develop and deploy an even more advanced
series of communication satellites, some of which might relay
transmissions from manned orbital command and control platforms.
The majority of Soviet military space programs has been specifically
designed to support terrestrial military operations. However, the
development of an antisatellite system has extended Soviet military use
of space to a capability for direct space warfare operations. It is
important to re-emphasize the size of the Soviet program, demonstrated
by a launch rate that is four-to-five times that of the United States,
and the size of the Soviet annual payload weight placed into orbit,
660,000 pounds - ten times that of the United States. BACK
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